Sigmund Freud’s Theories: What They Are & Do They Matter?

Many of us have heard of Freud. You might know he talked a lot about dreams or thought everything was related to sex. Yet few of us know the ins and outs of Freud’s theories, which of his ideas have stood the test of time and which have become cringey.

In this post, we’ll get to the bottom of it. We’ll go through all of Freud’s major theories and see where he contributed to today’s field of psychology.

Who is Sigmund Freud?

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist widely considered the father of therapy. 

Freud spent most of his life in Vienna, where he developed groundbreaking theories about the unconscious mind, dreams, and the psychological mechanisms of repression. 

His ideas have profoundly influenced psychology, literature, and broader culture despite plenty of controversy. 

Freud’s major contributions include: 

• The invention of talk therapy
• The concept of the unconscious mind
• Understanding adulthood as stages of development
• Bringing sexuality to the forefront 

The 8 Key Concepts of Freudian Theory

Let’s start with eight of Freud’s ideas that comprise his worldview’s pillars. 

It’s also worth noting that modern science does not support many of Freud’s ideas. But they were seminal in their time, and many still provide a helpful framework to examine the human mind.

The Unconscious Mind

The concept of the unconscious mind^{1https://www.freud.org.uk/education/resources/what-is-the-unconscious/} is a cornerstone of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. For Freud, the unconscious mind represents a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories outside of conscious awareness, yet these hidden elements significantly influence our behavior and experience. 

While Freud didn’t use this metaphor, many liken the idea to an iceberg, where what we see above water is only 10% of the iceberg. In the same way, a large percentage of each of our minds exists outside of our conscious awareness.

In other words, most of our behavior is done unconsciously in the background, not by our thoughtful actions.

Most contents of the unconscious mind, Freud believed, are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. Despite being submerged beneath conscious reality, these elements shape our actions, motivations, and emotional responses in a powerful manner. They might emerge subtly through dreams or Freudian slips – unintentional utterances that reveal a concealed thought or desire. 

For example, imagine you and your friend planning to cook dinner together. While brainstorming what to cook together, your friend proposes fettuccine—a style of noodle you are not fond of. You respond, with vigor, “No way! I hate fatherccine!”

To which your friend asks, “Did you just say father-vaccine?” 

At which point you look down, feeling embarrassed and confused.

Freud would explain this by saying you have a buried hatred for your father in your subconscious that you might not be aware of, and it just slipped right out without you noticing.

According to Freud, the unconscious mind is a powerful, ongoing influence on human behavior. He thought our unconscious beliefs and feelings were running the show of our minds and personalities. 

Through psychoanalysis, Freud proposed, we can explore this hidden mental terrain, bringing light to the darker, unknown facets of our psyche.

The id, ego, and superego

Freud’s theory of the mind goes beyond just the unconscious. He broke up the sectors of the mind into the id, the ego, and the superego. Let’s dive into each.

The id

Rooted deeply in the unconscious mind, the id is the primal, instinctual part of our personality.

It operates on the pleasure principle^{2https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/pleasure-principle}, seeking immediate gratification of basic drives like hunger, thirst, and sexual desire, with no consideration for social norms or the consequences of such actions.  

Freud likened the id to a horse and the ego to its rider: while the horse provides the power, the rider determines the direction. In this analogy, the id (the horse) offers the raw, instinctual energy for the ego to manage and direct in socially acceptable ways.

If you work in an office, your id might want you to gain as much power as possible regardless of how you get there. Your ego might find ethical ways to gain power and status and combine that goal with the desire to help others.

The ego

According to Freud, the ego is the “executive branch” of the psyche that mediates between the primal impulses of the id, the idealistic standards of the superego, and the demands of reality. 

It operates based on the reality principle, seeking to gratify the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. 

Unlike the id, which is entirely unconscious, the ego functions at conscious and preconscious levels. 

It also employs defense mechanisms like repression, denial, and rationalization to protect the individual from experiencing anxiety or guilt. 

So if the doctor tells you that if you keep smoking cigarettes, you’ll get lung cancer in no time, the ego may put forth a defense mechanism to protect you from acknowledging the painful anxiety that your habits are killing you. “My phlegm has nothing to do with my smoking habit, doc! It’s just that my allergies are getting worse. I’m telling ya.”

In the horse-and-rider analogy that Freud used to describe the id and the ego, the ego (the rider) must guide the id’s energy (the horse) in a direction in accordance with reality and social norms. Thus, the ego plays a crucial role in regulating behavior and facilitating human interaction within societal structures.

The superego

The superego, in Freud’s structural model of the psyche, is the component that represents internalized societal and parental standards of conduct, a sort of moral compass for the individual. 

It operates at all levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. 

Developing in late childhood, the superego has two distinct aspects: the ego ideal^{3https://www.cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/psychoanalysis/definitions/egoideal.html} and the conscience. The ego ideal is an embodiment of perfect conduct, an aspirational “good behavior” model, while the conscience is responsible for imparting feelings of guilt and striving for moral behavior. 

The superego can be understood as an internal moral authority that sets guidelines and imposes limitations on what the ego should and should not do. It pushes the ego to act in morally acceptable ways and punishes it with feelings of guilt and anxiety when it fails to do so. 

To Freud, the superego didn’t come from altruistic motives. But more from the desire to “be good” in the eyes of society. 

Imagine you’re on a camping trip and get finally fed up with the endless onslaught of mosquitos. So, despite your usual orientation towards non-violence, you stand up in a state of peak frustration and smack the mosquito on your shoulder with all the force you’ve got, squishing it into oblivion as the primal battle cry of the id rises from your throat. You immediately experience guilt, shame, and regret. How could you kill this innocent creature?! 

To Freud, these feelings are agents of the superego. He might say that, based on the pressures of society, you have an ego ideal to be a pacifist, so when you counter that image, you experience negative feelings from your conscience. To him, your desires for non-violence are not pure per se but come from your pressures to impress your parents and society.

In Freud’s horse-and-rider analogy, the superego would represent the path the rider is expected to follow by societal standards. As the rider, the ego must thus navigate between the instinctual demands of the id (the horse) and the superego’s moral demands (the path).

The interplay between the id, ego, and superego

According to Freud, a healthy personality is one in which a balance has been struck between the id, ego, and superego. However, if one component becomes dominant, it could lead to maladaptive behaviors and psychological distress, a state often addressed in psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.

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Dream analysis

Sigmund Freud’s dream analysis theory says that dreams are a reflection of repressed unconscious desires. 

He differentiated between a dream’s manifest content^{4https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/Dreams/dreams.pdf}—the storyline as we recall it—and its latent content—the hidden psychological meaning. 

For example, imagine that you dreamed of drinking champagne on a yacht with Jack Harlow and Spock. Suddenly, Spock karate-kicked Harlow off the boat, causing you to cry out in anguish. 

This strange storyline would be the manifest content. If you worked with Freud, he might say that the latent content of this dream is as follows: the boat and champagne represent your desires for success and wealth. Harlow is the artist in you, and Spock is your logical side. The karate kick shows that the logical part of you is killing your inner artist and causing you pain.

However, Freud’s perspective on dreams is one of many and has been widely debated.

Psychosexual stages of development

Sigmund Freud proposed that human development occurs in five distinct stages^{5https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557526/}. His idea was that in each stage of sexual development, a person would explore pleasure through a different part of their body. Below are the stages:

Oral stage (Birth to 1 year)

Pleasure centers on the mouth, with activities such as sucking, biting, and chewing. According to Freud, issues in this stage can lead to oral fixation in adulthood, which could manifest as excessive eating, smoking, or nail biting.

Anal stage (1 to 3 years)

Freud theorized that at this stage, the child’s pleasure comes from defecating. According to Freud, the way parents approach toilet training can impact the child’s personality; overly strict training can lead to an anal-retentive personality (obsessive or overly tidy), and lenient training can lead to an anal-expulsive personality (careless, messy, or disorganized).

Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

In this stage, the pleasure zone shifts to the genitals. Freud explains that children become aware of their sexual identity and develop an attraction to the opposite-sex parent, a concept known as the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls. Successful resolution involves identifying with the same-sex parent and assimilating their characteristics.

The presupposition that healthy sexuality means attraction to the opposite sex is a widely rejected premise by many modern thinkers.

Latency stage (6 years to puberty)

The dormancy of sexual feelings characterizes this stage. Energy is directed towards social and intellectual skills like learning, building friendships, and other aspects of social interaction.

Genital stage (Puberty to adult)

This stage sees a resurgence of sexual interests and behaviors. If development has been successful in earlier stages, individuals will enter this stage with well-adjusted ways to express their sexual desires.

Freud believed that difficulties or conflicts unresolved in a particular stage could result in fixation. In this phenomenon, the individual remains stuck in that developmental stage, leading to specific personality traits and behaviors in adulthood. 

While Freud’s psychosexual theory was groundbreaking, it’s worth noting it has been widely criticized and is less frequently used in contemporary psychology.

Defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms^{6https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559106/} are strategies that the ego uses to protect the mind from thoughts and feelings that it perceives as distressing or threatening.  

Sigmund Freud initially outlined the concept, but his daughter, Anna Freud, further elaborated and categorized the defense mechanisms. Here are some commonly recognized mechanisms:

• Denial: This is the refusal to accept reality or facts. It’s often used to protect the ego from things the individual cannot cope with. An example might be someone who can’t accept a health diagnosis and remains certain that they are healthy.
• Repression: This involves pushing distressing thoughts or feelings into the unconscious. An example might be if something unbearably painful happened in someone’s childhood; they may not remember it outright despite the event influencing their thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
• Projection involves attributing one’s unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person. For example, someone who is feeling guilty about their desire to cheat on a partner might become accusatory of their partner for being unfaithful.
• Displacement involves transferring feelings about one object or person to another that is less threatening. For instance, someone angry at their boss might go home and yell at their kids for not lining their shoes up neatly.
• Sublimation involves transforming unacceptable desires or impulses into socially acceptable actions or behaviors. For example, someone with aggressive impulses might sublimate those impulses through kickboxing.
• Rationalization: This involves explaining away actions in a seemingly logical way to avoid uncomfortable feelings, particularly guilt and shame. For example, a student who fails a test might explain it away by saying that the test was unfairly written instead of acknowledging that the night before the exam, they chose to compete in an hours-long beer pong tournament rather than studying or sleeping.

The idea behind defense mechanisms is that they occur subconsciously and aren’t necessarily healthy or sustainable; they are just how we cope with complicated feelings.

Some other defense mechanisms that Freud didn’t list but that you might recognize are nervous laughter and sarcasm.

Life and death instincts

These concepts represent two fundamental forces^{7https://www.geneseo.edu/~easton/humanities/Freud.htm} that Freud believed drive human behavior.

Life instincts (Eros)

Freud suggested that life instincts, or Eros, are focused on survival, pleasure, and creativity. 

The energy created by life instincts, known as libido, was initially believed by Freud to be primarily associated with sexuality. Still, he later expanded the concept to include all life-sustaining activities.

Someone with high Eros might be vivacious and passionate. Beaming with life force, creating new art constantly, and frequently going on epic adventures.

Death instincts (Thanatos)

Later in his career, Freud introduced the concept of death instincts, also known as Thanatos. Death instincts are driven by an unconscious wish to die or to return to a state of inorganic, non-living matter. 

According to Freud, this instinct often manifests itself in aggression, destructive behavior, and risk-taking behaviors.  

The concept of death instincts, in particular, has been a point of considerable controversy and debate among scholars and is not widely accepted or used in contemporary psychology.

According to Freud’s theory, someone with lots of Thanatos may often speed while driving, engage in bungee jumping, experience a general apathy, or perhaps feel an impulse to “jump!” while walking across a suspension bridge.

The Oedipus complex, Electra complex, and penis envy

Oedipus complex

The Oedipus complex^{8https://www.britannica.com/science/Oedipus-complex} is a central concept in Freud’s psychosexual theory of development, which emerges during the phallic stage (around ages 3 to 6). 

Named after the Greek mythological character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother, the complex describes boys as seeing their fathers as rivals for their mother’s affection. 

Overcoming this complex involves the boy identifying with the father, which helps develop his adult sexual role and moral conscience.

Electra complex

Proposed by Carl Jung and later expanded by Freud, the Electra Complex is considered the female counterpart to the Oedipus Complex. 

It suggests that during the phallic stage, girls develop a sexual attraction towards their father and jealousy towards their mother. 

They eventually identify with their mother, which contributes to the development of their feminine gender identity.

In today’s context, it feels a bit out there. Still, yes, Freud did propose that all boys with heterosexual parents are sexually attracted to their mothers and that girls are sexually attracted to their fathers.

Penis envy

Freud used the term “penis envy” to describe the anxiety that he believed women felt due to their lack of a penis. According to Freud, this supposed envy leads women to resent their mothers and feel attracted to their fathers. 

This is one of Freud’s theories that did not age well. Critics argue that penis envy reflects the patriarchal biases of Freud’s time, and many contemporary psychologists reject this concept.

Womb envy

Coined by psychiatrist Karen Horney, womb envy^{9https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277539511000252} counters Freud’s concept of penis envy. Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority knowing they cannot bear children. This envy drives them to succeed in work and other areas, serving as compensation for their inability to give birth. 

This concept was an important contribution to feminist psychology and psychoanalysis, emphasizing the value of women’s ability to bear children rather than focusing on penis envy.

Remember, these concepts have been widely debated and are viewed skeptically by many contemporary psychologists due to their gender and culture-specific assumptions.

Freud’s view of religion

Sigmund Freud viewed religion as an illusion and a form of neurosis. He saw religious beliefs as wish-fulfillments and attempts to control an unpredictable world by subjecting it to the human psyche. 

Freud compared religious rituals to obsessive-compulsive behaviors, believing they both served to alleviate anxiety. 

Freud speculated that the reliance on religious illusions would decrease as societies become more scientifically advanced. 

His views were, and continue to be, controversial and seen as an oversimplification of religious experiences.

Freud’s Significance in Modern Psychology 

The invention of talk therapy and psychotherapy

Before Sigmund Freud, mental health treatments were primarily physical. Freud revolutionized this with talk therapy, or psychotherapy, which centers on a conversation between patient and therapist. 

His method, psychoanalysis, focuses on the role of the unconscious and employs techniques like free association, dream analysis, and examination of transference. 

Freud’s style of therapy did include the iconic image of the patient lying on the couch. The idea was that if the patient didn’t have to engage in face-to-face conversation, they could feel more liberated exploring their thoughts.

Modern therapy and life coaching contribute to happier, healthier people. And we can, in large part, thank Freud for that!

The unconscious

Freud’s concept of the unconscious mind, a reservoir of thoughts, memories, and desires affecting our behavior without awareness, revolutionized psychology by shifting the focus from conscious to unconscious experiences. 

So many modern schools of therapy and personal growth modalities revolve around exploring and healing the unconscious. Again, thank you, Freud!

Understanding of human development

Freud’s psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages) introduced a new way of thinking about how our personalities form during childhood. 

While most of his specific ideas about sexual development have been critiqued, the broader concept that early experiences can shape adult behavior is widely accepted and is the hallmark of today’s psychotherapeutic worldview.

Emphasis on sexuality

During Freud’s era, discussing sexuality was considered taboo. However, Freud emphasized its importance in human behavior and psychology, arguing that sexual desire is a primary motivational force. He proposed concepts like libido and sexual repression, bringing the topic of sexuality to the forefront of psychology and broader society.

So, while lots of his ideas about sex were a bit suspect, sexist, and problematic, just the fact that he emphasized sex did create more openness around the topic.

Case studies

Freud extensively used case studies (such as “Anna O” and “Little Hans”) to explore and illustrate his theories. 

His careful observation and documentation of individual patients set the stage for the later use of case studies in clinical psychology and psychotherapy. These case studies offered deep insights into individual behavior and introduced the possibility of understanding psychological disorders through personal narratives.

Focus on internal rather than external processes

Before Freud, psychology was primarily focused on observable behavior. Freud shifted this by emphasizing the importance of internal processes and unconscious thoughts. 

This change in focus opened up a new way of understanding human behavior and laid the foundation for later psychological approaches. 

Of course, other cultures (such as those practicing Theravada Buddhist meditation^{10https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Theravada_Buddhism} in Thailand) have explored internal processes for thousands of years.

But Freud helped put this way of thinking on the map for the Western world. 

Still-used terms that came from Freud

Many words and phrases from Freud’s work have made their way into our everyday language, demonstrating his enduring influence. 

Here are a few common phrases derived from Freud’s work:

• Freudian slip: This term refers to an unintentional error in speech or action that reveals subconscious thoughts or desires. It underscores Freud’s belief in the power of the unconscious mind.
• Anal retentive: Derived from Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, this term refers to a person who is obsessively tidy, meticulous, or rigidly orderly, linked initially to experiences during the “anal stage” of early childhood.
• Defense mechanism: This term refers to unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with anxiety and maintain self-esteem. 
• Denial: As a defense mechanism in Freud’s model, denial refers to refusing to accept reality or facts that are too uncomfortable to acknowledge.
• Repression: Another defense mechanism, repression involves unconsciously pushing disturbing thoughts, memories, or feelings out of conscious awareness.
• Libido: Originating from Latin, meaning desire or lust, Freud repurposed it to signify sexual drive. Today, it’s still used to refer to sexual desire.
• Ego: A Latin term meaning “I,” Freud used it to symbolize the rational part of the mind. Now, it’s commonly used to denote self-esteem, self-importance, or the illusion of the self from an Eastern spiritual perspective.
• Neurotic: Originally a term for drastic, irrational reactions, Freud used it to describe mental disorders characterized by anxiety. Today, it refers to someone who’s overly anxious or obsessive.
• Catharsis: A term from Greek drama, Freud used it to indicate the release of repressed emotions. It’s now used to describe any emotional release or relief.
• Projection: Initially a term from psychical research, Freud adopted it to describe a defense mechanism. It’s still used to denote attributing one’s feelings or thoughts to others.

These terms illustrate how Freud’s theories have permeated not just the field of psychology but also our everyday understanding of human behavior and thought processes.

Whether we like it or not, on some level, we all have plenty of Freud’s thinking in our cultural consciousness.

Criticisms of Freud’s Theory

Freud brought forth a massive canon of work to psychology and philosophy. He made a huge mark on the future of these fields. However, despite his large influence, many criticize his work^{11https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336128964_Sigmund_Freud_and_his_Critics_-_From_1896Master}. Here are some of the major critiques.

Lack of scientific rigor

One of the main criticisms of Freud’s work is that many of his theories lack empirical evidence and are not easily subjected to scientific testing. 

For example, his observations and interpretations derive from concepts like the Oedipus complex, dream symbolism, or the id, ego, and superego. Still, these interpretations can be highly subjective and only sometimes applicable. He had a clear theory of how humans work, but none was testable.

Additionally, because much of his work cannot be falsified—that is, it cannot be proven definitively false—many argue that it falls outside the realm of science. 

Over time, psychology has evolved into a more empirical discipline, and this lack of scientific rigor has led many contemporary psychologists to view Freud’s work as a starting point for the discipline but not a definitive explanation of human behavior.

Overemphasis on sexuality

Freud’s theories often attributed human behavior to sexual desire, which he saw as the primary motivational force in human life. For Freud, everything came down to sex. Critics argue that this oversimplifies other important factors, such as social interaction, culture, or individual agency. 

They suggest that while sexuality is indeed a significant aspect of human life, it’s not the sole driver of our actions and behaviors. Many critics also argue that Freud’s focus on sexuality reflected his cultural context rather than a universal human experience.

Gender bias

Freud’s theories have been critiqued for their gender bias and patriarchal undertones. Notably, his concept of penis envy—the theory that women experience feelings of inferiority and developmental issues due to their lack of a penis—has been widely criticized for being demeaning to women. 

Furthermore, Freud’s psychosexual stages of development often centered on male development, with less attention given to female development. 

Many view his work to be overtly sexist and completely misrepresentative of female psychology.

Limited samples

Freud’s theories were based mainly on observations of a minor, homogeneous sample: primarily upper-class Viennese women. Critics argue that this narrow sample makes it difficult to generalize his theories to a broader population. 

His theories might reflect more on the specific societal and cultural context in which they were developed rather than universal aspects of human psychology. 

This criticism points to the need for psychological theories based on diverse samples that better represent the broad spectrum of human experience.

Pessimistic view of human nature

Some critics contend that Freud’s theories present a rather pessimistic view of human nature. He portrayed people as being ruled by primitive urges and in constant conflict between their instincts and societal norms (the conflict between the id and the superego). 

This perspective, critics suggest, underestimates the capacity for human growth, rational thought, and altruism. It also contrasts with other psychological perspectives that view human beings as inherently good or neutral and capable of self-actualization.

Frequently Asked Questions about Freud’s Theories

Takeaways from Freudian Theory

Freud was a prolific creator and brought dozens of ideas to the psychological community. Here are a few of the key points to take away from this primer:

• Psychoanalysis: Freud founded psychoanalysis, a theoretical perspective and therapeutic approach that seeks to uncover unconscious thoughts and desires to resolve psychic tension.
• Structure of the mind: Freud proposed a three-part model of the human mind composed of the id (primitive instincts), ego (reality-oriented mediator), and superego (moral conscience).
• Childhood development: Freud theorized that early childhood experiences, particularly those related to sexual impulses, play a significant role in shaping adult personality and behavior.
• Unconscious mind: Freud introduced the concept of the unconscious mind, suggesting that many of our actions and behaviors are driven by thoughts and desires we are unaware of.
• Legacy and criticism: Freud’s theories have profoundly impacted psychology and broader culture. However, they have also faced considerable criticism, including issues of scientific rigor, overemphasis on sexuality, gender bias, a narrow and non-diverse sample, and a somewhat pessimistic view of human nature.

If you’d like to review the work of another giant from the history of psychology, check out this article on Jean Piaget.